Honour and Shame as Moral-Emotional Identity Regulation in Diaspora: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of Young British South Asian Women
Abstract
Honour and shame are central moral constructs within many South Asian communities, yet their psychological internalisation in diasporic contexts remains underexamined. This qualitative study explored how young British South Asian women (aged 18–25; N = 6) understand and negotiate honour in relation to gender, religion, and identity. Semi-structured interviews were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Six interrelated themes illustrated honour as a gendered and relational system sustained through anticipatory shame, behavioural surveillance, and sexual double standards. Participants described internalised self-monitoring, bicultural identity tension, and strategic resistance through selective compliance and religious reinterpretation. We propose that honour and shame in minority diaspora contexts function as a moral-emotional identity-regulation system characterised by anticipatory shame, relational accountability, and boundary maintenance under racialisation. This conceptualisation advances acculturation and bicultural identity frameworks by arguing that moral emotion, particularly anticipatory shame, functions as a primary mechanism of cultural internalisation, rather than merely an outcome of value endorsement. The findings further illuminate how moral surveillance shapes identity negotiation and psychological wellbeing, with implications for culturally responsive community and clinical practice.
Author Contributions
Academic Editor: Sasho Stoleski, Institute of Occupational Health of R. Macedonia, WHO CC and Ga2len CC.
Checked for plagiarism: Yes
Review by: Single-blind
Copyright © 2026 Samrah Asif, et al.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Competing interests
The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
Citation:
Introduction
Honour and shame have long been recognised as powerful social constructs shaping gendered behaviour, family relationships, and identity within many South Asian communities. These constructs operate as collective moral frameworks through which women’s bodies, choices, and conduct are regulated, often positioning women as symbolic custodians of family and community reputation 1, 2. Expectations surrounding sexuality, obedience, and respectability frequently become intertwined with notions of honour, producing both explicit and subtle forms of social control 3. While existing scholarship has examined honour-based norms and practices, much of this work has focused on extreme manifestations such as honour-based violence or forced marriage. Consequently, the everyday psychological and relational dimensions of honour and shame remain comparatively underexplored.
While honour has been examined as a cultural value system and as a framework underpinning gendered violence, less attention has been paid to the emotional mechanisms through which it becomes internalised in everyday life. In particular, the role of shame as a prospective regulatory force shaping self-monitoring, relational accountability, and identity formation within diasporic minority contexts remains insufficiently theorised.
Scholars argue that honour should not be conceptualised as a static cultural artefact, but as a gendered system of coercive control embedded within broader structures of patriarchy and racialisation 4, 5, 6, 7.
Within the British South Asian diaspora, young women frequently navigate competing cultural frameworks that shape their sense of self and belonging. Collectivist family and community expectations emphasise conformity, modesty, and reputational responsibility, whereas dominant British cultural norms prioritise autonomy, self-expression, and gender equality 8, 9. However, there remains limited qualitative research centring women’s own interpretations of how honour and shame are internalised, negotiated, and resisted in everyday diasporic life.
Drawing on feminist, intersectional, and social constructionist perspectives, this study conceptualises honour not as a static cultural tradition but as a dynamic, relational system of identity regulation. Within diaspora contexts, honour may function simultaneously as a mechanism of gendered control and as a strategy of boundary maintenance in response to perceived cultural threat.
Cross-cultural psychology has examined bicultural identity development and acculturation processes extensively 10, 11. Dominant acculturation models conceptualise cultural negotiation primarily in terms of value endorsement, behavioural adaptation, or identity integration 10, 11. However, such frameworks offer limited insight into how culturally embedded moral emotions, particularly shame, function as mechanisms through which collective norms are internalised and maintained.
Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), the present study explores how young British South Asian women internalise, negotiate, and reinterpret honour and shame within diasporic identity formation. We argue that honour and shame operate as a moral-emotional architecture of identity regulation in minority contexts, extending acculturation and bicultural identity frameworks by foregrounding anticipatory shame as a mechanism of cultural internalisation. By centring women’s lived experience, the study contributes to community and applied social psychology through a nuanced account of moral surveillance, relational accountability, and negotiated agency.
Method
Design
This study employed a qualitative design using semi-structured interviews and Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to explore how young British South Asian women understand and experience honour and shame within a diasporic context. IPA was selected to explore participants’ lived experience and sense-making 12. The study was informed by a social constructionist epistemology, conceptualising honour and shame as culturally produced and relational rather than inherent traits. An intersectional lens guided attention to how gender, race, religion, and diasporic positioning intersect in shaping experience. Reflexivity was maintained throughout data collection and analysis. Participants: six British South-Asian women, aged 18-25 (N = 6). As a qualitative IPA study, the aim was not statistical generalisation but depth of lived experience. The findings therefore offer analytic rather than statistical generalisability, consisten with IPA’s epistemological commitments.
Participants
Participants were young British South Asian women aged 18–25 who self-identified as South Asian and had been raised in the United Kingdom. A purposive sampling strategy was used to recruit individuals likely to have direct experience of honour-based expectations, consistent with IPA’s idiographic commitment to depth 12. Recruitment occurred via social media and university networks. The final sample comprised 6 participants. Participants represented diverse South Asian heritages (e.g., Pakistani, Indian, Bangladeshi) and varied religious identifications (e.g., Muslim, Hindu). All were second-generation migrants raised in the United Kingdom, and were university students at the time of interview. This sample size is consistent with IPA’s idiographic emphasis on depth and detailed case-level analysis 12.
Data Collection
Data were collected through semi-structured interviews lasting approximately 45–60 minutes. An interview schedule guided discussion of identity, belonging, cultural understandings of honour and shame, gendered expectations, religion and culture, psychological impact, and strategies of negotiation or resistance. Open-ended questions encouraged depth and flexibility.
Interviews were conducted either in person or online, according to participant preference. With informed consent, interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Participants were reminded of their right to withdraw or decline to answer questions at any stage.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval was obtained from the relevant institutional review board prior to data collection. Given the sensitivity of the topic, particular attention was paid to confidentiality and participant welfare. Pseudonyms were assigned and identifying details removed from transcripts. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw and of the limits of confidentiality in cases of risk disclosure. Information regarding appropriate support services was provided following the interview.
Analytic Procedure
Analysis followed the procedures outlined by 12, including iterative reading, detailed initial noting, development of emergent themes, and cross-case patterning. Analysis moved from idiographic case-level interpretation to identification of shared patterns across participants.
Reflexivity and Rigour
The researcher occupied a partial insider position as a British South Asian woman. While this facilitated rapport and cultural understanding, reflexive practice was essential to manage assumptions and analytic bias 13. A reflexive journal was maintained throughout data collection and analysis.
To enhance analytic credibility, themes were developed through iterative cross-case comparison and reviewed against full transcripts to ensure grounding in participants’ accounts. Analytic decisions were documented in a reflexive journal to maintain transparency regarding interpretative processes. Given IPA’s double hermeneutic commitment, attention was paid to balancing participants’ meaning-making with theoretical interpretation. The analytic process prioritised idiographic depth while ensuring coherence across cases.
Findings
The analysis generated six interrelated superordinate themes illustrating how participants navigated honour, shame, gendered expectations, and identity within British South Asian diasporic contexts.
· Theme 1 – Cultural construction of Honour and Shame (collective, gendered system)
· Theme 2 – Sexuality and Gender double standards
· Theme 3 – Religion and Culture intertwining
· Theme 4 – Gendered Behavioural Policing
· Theme 5 – Impact on Mental Health and Identity
· Theme 6 – Resilience and Strategic Resistance
Consistent with the idiographic commitment of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), themes are presented with illustrative quotations to preserve participants’ meaning-making.
Theme 1: The Cultural Construction of Honour and Shame
Participants described honour (izzat) and shame as collective moral systems governing behaviour through family and community expectations. Honour was not experienced as an individual quality but as an inherited responsibility, with women positioned as custodians of familial reputation. As one participant explained, “It’s never really about you as a person – it’s about how your family looks because of you.” This distinction between self and family illustrates how personal identity was subsumed within communal evaluation. Identity was therefore experienced as relationally co-owned rather than individually possessed, suggesting that the self was constituted through anticipated communal evaluation. Honour functioned as an evaluative horizon against which the self was continuously measured, embedding moral accountability within everyday self-perception.
Shame operated as anticipatory and internalised. Participants described regulating themselves before any explicit rule was articulated. “Even doing something normal feels risky,” one woman noted, capturing how everyday behaviour became morally charged. Expectations were rarely explicitly stated; rather, they were absorbed through silence and social cues: “No one ever explains it, you just know.”
Honour was consistently described as gendered. Male behaviour was framed as temporary or forgivable, whereas women’s actions were portrayed as permanent reflections of character. As one participant put it, “Boys mess up and it’s just a phase, but for girls it sticks forever.” Women described feeling as though they were “walking on eggshells,” aware that minor behaviours (e.g., clothing, socialising, tone) could carry reputational consequences.
Theme 2: Sexuality and Gender Double Standards
Sexuality emerged as a central site of moral surveillance. Participants described clear double standards in which women’s sexuality was scrutinised while men’s behaviour was normalised. Sexuality was framed as a public matter tied to family honour rather than a private dimension of identity.
Participants described silence as a key regulatory tool. “Girls aren’t allowed to even be associated with sexuality,” one explained. Discussion itself was often treated as transgressive. Dating was described as particularly shame-laden: “Dating isn’t just wrong, it’s shameful.” Romantic relationships were perceived as threats to respectability and future marriage prospects.
By contrast, male sexuality was frequently excused. “If a boy does it, it’s normal… but if it’s a girl, her whole character is questioned.”
Participants described living under an imagined community gaze: “You’re always thinking, what if someone sees me?” This anticipatory surveillance shaped movement, dress, and interaction. The imagined gaze operated as a form of prospective discipline, structuring behaviour through anticipated moral judgement rather than direct prohibition. Shame was described less as a reaction to wrongdoing and more as an anticipatory affective state that structured behaviour before transgression occurred. Restrictions were often framed as protective, yet experienced as controlling: “They say it’s to protect us, but it feels more like control.”
Theme 3: The Role of Religion and Culture
Participants described religion and culture as deeply intertwined within family life, often presented as indistinguishable. Religious language was frequently invoked to legitimise behavioural restrictions, yet participants questioned whether these expectations were theological or cultural.
“You’re told it’s religious, but no one can explain why,” one participant observed. Others described independently exploring their faith and discovering inconsistencies between familial interpretations and religious texts: “When I actually learned more about my religion, I realised a lot of it wasn’t even religious.”
For some, faith provided affirmation and dignity independent of cultural expectations. Religion was therefore experienced ambivalently: as both a potential mechanism of control and a source of personal meaning. This ambivalence illustrates religion’s dual capacity as both a legitimising discourse for gendered regulation and a resource for moral reinterpretation. Participants’ engagement with religious texts indicates active meaning-making rather than passive cultural inheritance.
Challenging religious interpretations could provoke defensiveness from older generations, reflecting how moral authority was intertwined with generational identity.
Theme 4: Gendered Expectations and Behavioural Policing
Gendered expectations were described as routine and pervasive, shaping speech, posture, clothing, and mobility. Participants characterised this as ongoing surveillance rather than isolated rules.
Respectability was linked to silence and compliance. “Being quiet is seen as being well mannered,” one participant explained. Women described being criticised for laughing loudly, expressing opinions, or appearing “too visible.”
Surveillance was communal. Extended family members and community figures were described as active enforcers. “It’s not always your parents, it’s what people will say to them,” one woman noted, highlighting reputational management across networks.
Older women were often identified as particularly strict, illustrating intergenerational transmission of expectations. Restrictions on mobility were common, with participants contrasting their limited freedom to the autonomy of male siblings: “My brother never has to explain where he’s going.” Regulation operated through diffuse relational networks rather than singular authority figures. The absence of a clearly identifiable enforcer intensified anticipatory self-monitoring, as accountability was perceived as potentially everywhere.
Theme 5: The Impact of Honour and Shame on Mental Health and Identity
Participants described honour and shame as deeply internalised, shaping self-worth and emotional wellbeing. Worthiness was frequently tied to compliance: “good as long as you’re doing what they expect.” This conditional acceptance generated anxiety and self-doubt.
Hypervigilance and overthinking were common. “I’m always thinking about how I’m coming across, even when I’m alone,” one participant explained, illustrating how external surveillance became internal self-policing. Shame was experienced as persistent and anticipatory, functioning less as a response to discrete transgressions and more as a continuous background condition of self-evaluation. Participants’ accounts of monitoring themselves “even when alone” indicate that communal evaluation had become internalised as self-surveillance.
Many described feeling culturally “in between,” not fully belonging to either British or South Asian contexts: “You don’t feel fully part of either world.”
Mental health struggles were often minimised within families. Emotional distress was reframed as ingratitude or weakness, discouraging open discussion or help-seeking. Participants described experiences of anxiety, low self-esteem, and persistent feelings of inadequacy: “Never enough, no matter what I do.”
At the same time, some participants reframed their distress as a response to pressure rather than personal deficiency. Recognising the structural origins of their anxiety marked a shift towards self compassion and critical awareness.
Theme 6: Resilience and Resistance
Despite significant constraints, participants demonstrated agency through subtle negotiation and reinterpretation. Resistance was often strategic rather than confrontational. “You do what you need to do, you just don’t tell them everything,” one participant explained, describing selective disclosure as a survival strategy.
University and physical distance from home were described as transformative. “Coming to uni was the first time I could breathe.” Autonomy was experienced as relief rather than rebellion.
Several participants redefined honour in personal terms, shifting from obedience and sexual purity to integrity and authenticity. “For me, honour is being true to myself.” This reframing allowed women to retain cultural connection while rejecting restrictive interpretations.
Peer relationships, particularly with other South Asian women, provided validation and reduced isolation. Digital spaces also facilitated exposure to alternative narratives and feminist discourse.
Resistance carried emotional costs, including guilt and fear of exclusion. “Even when you choose yourself, you still feel bad.” These strategies reflect negotiated agency within structurally constrained contexts. Rather than rejecting honour outright, participants re-authored its meaning, shifting from sexual propriety towards personal integrity.
Discussion
Our findings position Honour and Shame as a moral-emotional identity-regulation system, with anticipatory shame as the primary internalisation mechanism, extending Berry’s 10 acculturation and Benet-Martinez’s 11 bicultural identity frameworks. This study conceptualised honour and shame as a moral-emotional system regulating identity within diasporic minority contexts. Across six themes, participants described anticipatory shame, relational accountability, and behavioural surveillance as mechanisms through which honour was internalised. Rather than functioning solely as cultural values, honour and shame emerged as an emotional architecture shaping self-monitoring, belonging, and negotiated agency.
Honour and Shame as Collective Moral Systems
The findings position honour and shame as collective moral systems embedded within family and community life. Honour (izzat) was experienced as belonging to the family rather than the individual, with women positioned as primary custodians. This supports longstanding scholarship conceptualising honour as relational and reputation-based, while extending this literature by illustrating how such expectations are intensified within diaspora contexts concerned with cultural preservation.
Everyday behaviours carried moral significance due to their perceived reputational implications. Participants’ accounts of anticipatory self-monitoring reflect processes of internalised surveillance, consistent with analyses of disciplinary power. From a social constructionist perspective, honour and shame are sustained through repetition, narrative comparison, and implicit socialisation rather than formal instruction. The findings demonstrate how these constructs become embedded within identity development, shaping self-evaluation and behavioural regulation.
Notably, several participants described honour-based expectations as heightened within the British context, where maintaining respectability was linked to protection against racism or negative stereotyping. This complicates interpretations of honour solely as patriarchal oppression and suggests that it may also function as a defensive cultural strategy within marginalised communities. However, women bore disproportionate responsibility for maintaining this collective respectability, reinforcing gendered asymmetry.
Sexuality as a Site of Moral Regulation
Sexuality emerged as one of the most tightly regulated domains. Participants described stark double standards in which male sexuality was tolerated while female sexuality was constructed as morally consequential. Regulation extended beyond behaviour to perception and association, illustrating how reputation operates through symbolic boundaries.
Silence around dating and desire intensified regulation, with shame operating in anticipation of potential judgement. Participants described concealment and “double lives” as strategies for navigating contradictory expectations. While secrecy enabled limited autonomy, it also produced anxiety and identity fragmentation.
Within diaspora contexts, Western dating norms were often framed as threats to cultural continuity. As a result, women became symbolic boundary markers between tradition and modernity.
Negotiating Religion and Culture
Participants described blurred boundaries between religion and culture, particularly where behavioural restrictions were justified through religious language. Many distinguished between cultural practices and religious principles, identifying selective interpretations that reinforced patriarchal control.
Importantly, religion functioned ambivalently. For some participants, independent engagement with religious texts enabled reinterpretation and resistance, providing moral grounds for challenging restrictive norms. This illustrates religion’s dual capacity as both a legitimising framework for control and a resource for agency.
Generational differences were salient. Older family members often conflated culture and religion, whereas younger women demonstrated greater reflexivity in distinguishing between them. The findings contribute to diaspora scholarship by showing how religious meaning is actively negotiated rather than passively inherited.
Everyday Surveillance and Gendered Policing
Honour and shame were sustained through routine behavioural monitoring. Participants described scrutiny of clothing, speech, mobility, and emotional expression, reflecting diffuse forms of regulation embedded in daily life. Enforcement was frequently intergenerational and communal, with extended networks participating in reputational management.
Surveillance became internalised, shaping anticipatory self-regulation. Women described constant evaluation of how actions might be perceived, demonstrating how moral norms become psychological structures. Marriage was sometimes framed as a release from parental scrutiny, yet participants’ accounts suggest it often represented a transfer rather than removal of moral regulation, with accountability shifting from natal family to marital structures.
These findings align with feminist analyses of internalised discipline while situating such processes within diasporic contexts concerned with boundary maintenance and cultural continuity.
Psychological Impact and Bicultural Identity
Honour and shame exerted sustained psychological effects. Participants reported chronic anxiety, guilt, and conditional self-worth linked to meeting collective expectations. Shame functioned as a central emotional mechanism connecting cultural regulation to self-evaluation.
Identity conflict was particularly pronounced in navigating British and South Asian cultural frameworks. Many participants described feeling “in between,” reflecting tensions associated with bicultural identity negotiation. Honour intensified these tensions by privileging collectivist loyalty over individual autonomy, complicating identity integration.
Collectively, these findings advance cross-cultural psychological theory by demonstrating that honour operates not merely as a value orientation, but as an internalised regulatory system embedded within bicultural development. Whereas acculturation models often conceptualise cultural conflict as tension between value systems, the present findings indicate that moral emotions function as the psychological infrastructure through which such values are enforced and sustained. Anticipatory shame appeared to operate as a regulatory mechanism shaping behaviour prior to conscious value negotiation, suggesting that moral affect may be a foundational component of bicultural identity development rather than a secondary outcome.
Resilience and Negotiated Agency
Despite constraints, participants demonstrated significant agency. Resistance was typically strategic rather than confrontational, including selective compliance, secrecy, reinterpretation of religious principles, and pursuit of education. These strategies reflect negotiated agency within contexts where overt defiance may carry relational costs.
Peer support and university environments provided spaces for autonomy and critical reflection. Some participants redefined honour in personal terms, shifting from obedience and sexual propriety towards integrity and self-respect. Such reinterpretations illustrate how cultural constructs can be reworked rather than simply rejected.
These findings challenge deficit narratives portraying South Asian women as passive recipients of control. Instead, they highlight resilience embedded within relational and cultural contexts.
Theoretical Implications for Cross-Cultural Psychology
The present findings suggest that prevailing acculturation and bicultural identity models insufficiently account for the moral-emotional mechanisms through which cultural norms are internalised and sustained. Classical bidimensional acculturation frameworks 10 conceptualise adaptation in terms of orientation towards heritage and host cultures, while bicultural identity integration models 11 emphasise perceived compatibility between cultural identities. However, these models largely treat cultural internalisation as a matter of value endorsement, behavioural adaptation, or identity harmony. The present findings suggest that moral emotion, particularly anticipatory shame, may precede and regulate these processes. Rather than merely endorsing collectivist values, participants described being governed by prospective emotional consequences tied to communal evaluation. This indicates that acculturation is not only a negotiation of cultural orientation, but also a negotiation of moral-emotional accountability.
Proposed Conceptual Model: Honour as a Diasporic Identity-Regulation System
The present findings support a conceptualisation of honour in minority diasporic contexts as a culturally embedded identity-regulation system operating through moral emotion. Specifically, we propose that honour-based regulation in diaspora is characterised by three interrelated mechanisms:
Anticipatory Shame as Emotional Governance – Shame operates prospectively rather than reactively, shaping behaviour before transgression occurs through imagined community evaluation.
Relational Accountability and Collective Selfhood – The self is experienced as symbolically tied to family and community reputation, producing heightened moral responsibility for maintaining collective respectability.
Boundary Maintenance Under Racialisation – Honour intensifies under minority conditions, functioning as a strategy for preserving cultural legitimacy and resisting negative stereotyping within dominant Western contexts.
This model extends acculturation and bicultural identity frameworks by specifying moral emotion as a regulatory mechanism that structures identity negotiation prior to, and alongside, value endorsement. Honour in diaspora therefore operates not merely as a cultural value, but as a regulatory emotional architecture embedded within identity development.
Honour in diaspora appears to operate as a minority-context regulatory system in which women’s behaviour becomes symbolically linked to collective respectability under conditions of racialisation. If acculturation theory seeks to explain how culture becomes psychologically internalised, then moral emotion, particularly anticipatory shame, must be conceptualised not merely as an outcome of value endorsement, but as one of its primary regulatory mechanisms. Integrating moral-emotional processes into cross-cultural theory therefore enables a more precise account of how cultural norms become lived, embodied, and affectively sustained within minority contexts, particularly where identity negotiation unfolds under conditions of racialisation and moral scrutiny.
Limitations
The study’s idiographic design and small, purposively selected sample limit generalisability. The small sample size reflects IPA’s idiographic focus and is not intended to support statistical inference. Instead, the study provides rich, contextualised insight into meaning-making processes. The predominantly university-educated composition of the sample may have shaped participants’ capacity for critical reinterpretation of honour norms, limiting transferability to women with fewer educational resources.
Data were based on retrospective self-report, and accounts were shaped by participants’ interpretative frameworks. The researcher’s partial insider position enhanced rapport but required reflexive attention to assumptions. Future research may benefit from comparative samples, including men, older women, or cross-national diaspora groups, as well as longitudinal designs examining shifts across life stages. The sample consisted of university students, which may limit transferability. Including professional women (e.g., teachers, lawyers, healthcare workers) in future studies would provide insight into how honour and shame operate within workplace and adult community contexts.
Future research could also incorporate older age groups (e.g., 30-50) to explore how honour, shame, and identity regulation evolve across the life course and whether generational shifts alter the prominence of moral surveillance. Longitudinal follow-up with the same cohort into mid-adulthood (around the age of 45) would further illuminate how anticipatory shame and identity negotiation develop over time.
Practical Implications
The findings highlight the importance of incorporating honour-based moral regulation into culturally responsive psychological theory and practice. Honour and shame operate as relational systems that may shape help-seeking, disclosure, and experiences of confidentiality. Clinicians should attend to anticipatory shame, conditional self-worth, and bicultural identity tension when working with young British South Asian women. Interventions that focus solely on cognitive belief restructuring may overlook the affective force of shame as a regulatory mechanism, underscoring the importance of compassion-focused and relational approaches.
Educational and community settings may provide supportive spaces for peer validation and dialogue. Engagement with faith leaders and community stakeholders may support gender-equitable reinterpretations that disentangle religious principles from restrictive cultural practices. Importantly, applied approaches must avoid pathologising South Asian communities and should balance gender equity with anti-racist sensitivity.
Conclusion
The study demonstrates that honour operates as a gendered, relational system sustained by anticipatory shame, relational accountability and boundary maintenance under racialisation. Participants internalised self-monitoring, experienced bicultural identity tension, and employed strategic resistance through selective compliance and religious reinterpretation. Anticipatory shame emerges as a primary mechanism of cultural internalisation, refining existing acculturation and bicultural identity models. Clinically, practitioners should attend to this moral-emotional architecture, fostering faith-informed, gender-equitable dialogues that avoid pathologising South-Asia cultures. Together, these findings highlight the need for culturally responsive community and clinical practice that recognises honour and shame as active moral-emotional forces shaping identity, wellbeing, and agency.
Statements and Declarations
Ethical considerations
The Psychology Ethics Review Committee at the University of Northampton approved our interviews on October 24th, 2026. All participants provided written informed consent prior to participating.
Declaration of conflicting interest
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding statement
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Accessibility Statement
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request.
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